Blight, Rust, Mold, Rot, Slugs, Snails and Earwigs
are all the wages of a wet summer, but the greatest of these is Late Blight. Our resident mycologist has the scientific perspective – and as he is also our tomato maestro, a very heavy heart. Here is his report on the New York garden, with a full explanation of the disease and how it spreads:
LATE BLIGHT –PHYTOPHTHORA INFESTANS– SWEEPS THROUGH THE NORTHEAST
I was in Maine when the word came in: Late Blight was laying waste to tomato fields in the Hudson Valley. Oh, say it ain’t so I pleaded. Leslie and I had been extra cautions this spring in starting from seed, setting out, cultivating, and protecting our tomatoes, fifty or so plants of some twenty or so varieties, mostly open pollinated heirlooms. They were specially grown from selected seed in our own greenhouse and in another in Maine; some heirlooms were painstakingly grafted onto disease resistant rootstock. The spacing was good. The plants were held up by a twine-between-post well-ventilated system, the ground carefully mulched with bright straw over paper, and all the lower branches were removed so as to exclude the transmission of soil borne pathogens. In addition the plants had been treated with Bacillus subtilis (Serenade tm) to protect against fungal infection. Say it ain’t so I prayed as I piled into the car and raced home through a driving rainstorm, thick as I had ever experienced.
But it was so.
Although the infestation seemed to hit our tomatoes later than others around us, the garden plots were thoroughly infected. Some plants were totally gone, black and shriveled; some seemed green and healthy, yet a close inspection of even the healthiest of plants revealed the telltale water-soaked lesions characteristic of Late Blight. Although I had studied Mycology in Grad school with a Phytophthora specialist, I needed a crash refresher course, so I hit the internet. After reading as much as I could about the Blight I realized I had no options but to cut my losses and cut the plants, removing them from the garden, if not my mind and heart.
There’s a thorough summary of advice at the end of this fact sheet from Kentucky State University. If you are also a gardener this will be familiar. If you are not and purchase your tomatoes from the greenmarket, this is why they are so expensive this year. It is a sad story.
The Historical Context:
As you probably know by now Phytophthora infestans is the fungus that was responsible for the Irish Potato Famine of the 1840’s. If you are of Irish extraction it is likely your ancestors came to North America as a result of this blight and the political forces attendant to it. Two million, about 30%, of the population of Ireland, either died or migrated in a five year period following the Blight, They called it An Gorta Mor, The Great Hunger.
In Ireland rain is common, and in 1845 a fungus brought to the Emerald Isle from America found perfect conditions for reproducing in potato fields. That spring the weather was rainy and cool for weeks on end, allowing the blight to spread from leaf to leaf, plant to plant, field to field, town to town in a matter of days. Crops that looked green and lush on Monday lay in rotting heaps by Friday. The speed at which the infection moved was explosive and unprecedented. It caught everyone by surprise, and forever changed the face of both Ireland and the United States.
Fast forward to summer 2009; from Ulster in Ireland to Ulster County in New York. Coming on the heels of an already cool wet June, wonderground.com forecasting system reported that… The combination of cool and wet conditions made July of 2009 the worst July on record in Albany New York. The 9.91 inches of rain which fell during July of 2009 made this the wettest July on record with records dating back to 1826. The average temperature of 68.3 degrees during July of 2009 tied for the 3rd coldest July on record with records dating back to 1820. No other July on record in Albany had a combination of cool and wet conditions of this magnitude.
Conditions for the spread of Phytophthora were perfect.
Add now the pathogen. Plant scientists at Cornell have determined that a few plant distributers were the initial providers of infected plants. These were shipped to Big Box Outlets (Wal-Mart, Lowes, Home Depot, Etc) throughout the northeast in time for spring planting. As these infected plants were placed on the shelves of the stores, they infected others, which in turn infected others, which were brought home to be planted. Loci of infection were begun all across a wide swath of farms and gardens from New Jersey and Pennsylvania to Maine. And then it rained, and rained and rained… The infection was earlier and more widespread than any ever recorded for the Blight in America. Farmers en masse were forced to plow under their tomatoes, the major cash crop of many, as the forces of just-in-time global-inventories came home to roost.
The Mycology: classification
Until recently Phytophthora was classed as a fungus, in Division Mastigomycota of the Kingdom Mycetae (fungus), a division characterized by fungi with motile, swimming spores, called zoospores. A further classification, Oomycota, was based upon the sexual structures which produce the thick-walled resting oospore. Since the cell walls of Phytophthora, however, are made of cellulose, not chitin, and since their energy is stored as glycogen, not starch, Phytophthora has since been reclassified into the new Kingdom Stramenophyla which includes Oomycota and some Algae. Nevertheless, the study of Phytophthora is still treated in mycology courses and control treatments for the Potato Blight are based upon the use of fungicides.
This name change and reclassification is a process frequently met in the study of fungi. Although the names change, the fungus, or in this case what used to be called a fungus, remains unchanged.
Oomycota and Zoospores
The reason Late Blight outbreaks occur in wet cool seasons is due to their zoospores; spores that can swim around like little tadpoles or sperm.
Unlike sperm, however, these spores have two tails, one pointing backwards and one forward. They swim out of the parent zoosporangia and then either keep their tails and swim to a nearby site to infect, or shed their tails and rely upon the wind to carry them to new sites. They can be carried by the wind for considerable distance – up to 50 miles it is thought – and then when they find a suitable host they form a germ tube and enter a cell of the host plant. After infecting the plant, by either method, they may live either within the cells or between them. The variety of mechanisms by which they are spread, infect, and feed are thought to be determined by both the temperature and relative humidity, and give them extraordinary pathological opportunity and strength.
Three or four days after infection, the leaf will develop a characteristic ‘water soaked’ lesion as the pathogenic enzymes break down the plant tissue. A fringe of white fuzz, sporangia, can often be seen at the edge of the spot, often on the underside of the leaf. This produces a crop of asexual spores. Each lesion is thought to produce from 100,000 to 300,000 spores per day. You can explore more of the biology here.
“Obligate parasite”
Late Blight is sometimes described as an “obligate parasite” able to live only on certain plants of the Solanaceous family – potato/tomato/eggplant, etc. It is now known however that P. infestans can also infect and be harbored on other plants such as wild nightshades, bittersweetsand petunia.
Other species of Phytophthora zero in on other plants. Beginning in 2000 the closely related P. capsici was seen to cause blight in cucurbits (melons, squash, cucumbers), as well as peppers, lima, soy beans, purslane and other weeds. By 2008 it was found to have infected snap beans on Long Island.
And P. ramorum, which causes Sudden Oak Death, can also affect dozens of other tree and shrub species.
Sexuality in Phytophthora
The genus contains well over fifty different species which have adapted to exploit different host plants. The rapid adaptations within the genus are facilitated by sexual recombination and the consequent reproduction of the new genetic patterns. For this to occur, of course, sexual differentiation is required. In Phytophthora the ‘sexes’ are referred to as A1 (male) and A2 (female). Possibly the only positive aspect of the 2009 infestation is that only one (homothallic) strain is currently in the Northeast – or at least that is the hope.
Both the Solanaceous family of plants and the specialized parasites of Phytophthora are thought to have developed in Mexico. Consequently, and for obvious reasons, both A1 and A2 strains of Phytophthora are present there, allowing for heterothallic sexual unions which both shuffle genes around and create the resistant, resting oospores.
Just as our southern neighbors gave us our tomatoes and potatoes, they also gave us the obligate parasites. The first Potato Blight in the Northeast was recorded in the mid 1800’s a year or two prior to the Irish outbreak and for over a hundred and fifty years there was only one strain which appeared here. Without a sexually produced resting oospore, the disease could not overwinter in the soil. It could only be transferred asexually by zoospore from one living plant to another during the growing season.
More recently, however, newer, more aggressive forms of Phytophthora have come out of Mexico and currently both A1 and A2 strains are found in the US, primarily in southern states.
Complicating the situation is the fact that the sex of homothallic populations can change as a function of the food availability, the ‘males’ forming when food supply is abundant. And, as it turns out, weather conditions which promote an abundant potato harvest are the very same ones which favor a Phytophthora outbreak.
Should compatible heterothallic strains appear in the Northeast the conditions would then allow sexual mating and set the stage for persistent overwintering strains of ever more resistant, dynamically adapting strains of Phytophthora. The oospores of this pathogen would then be ever-present just waiting for the rain, fog, drizzle and dew. The magnitude of this problem sort of reminds me of the advice given for protection from nuclear attack when I was younger. How did it go?… Just crawl under a nearby desk, bend over, place your head between your knees and kiss your ass goodbye! Yikes!
A word about the weather and climate
Long range weather forecasts that I have seen predict August to have a continuation of the pattern set up in June and July.
Weather and climate are different concepts, with the latter referring to the more widespread and long term weather patterns. But this we know about a warming climate: the warmer the earth becomes the more energy available for weather systems. Evaporation and temperature gradients both increase.
The climate on average may change by only a degree or two, but the weather will be characterized by more volatile, more energetic, and more extreme conditions. This summer the rains are here in the Northeast, the drought elsewhere. A subtle shift in the temperature over the south Pacific however, or the lack of snow cover over the northern lands masses, can suddenly cause the jet streams to shift and with it local weather patterns.
In short, a warming world is more dynamic, both as to the weather patterns and the biological communities which adapt to these conditions. Since most rapid change is destabilizing, the task set before us will more and more call for our human institutions to also rapidly adapt.
In the late 1980’s and early 1990’s medical journals, such as The Lancet, devoted entire issues to the threats posed by emerging disease pathogens in the face of climate change. Our collective response seemed to be to bury our head in the sand, to buy more air conditioners, hummers, SUV’s and cartoon commentators, all the while waiting for the excrement to hit the ventilation system. History may well record that it hit this last year and the fallout appears to be everywhere, in my garden, backyard, community as well as yours.
………..
Say it ain’t so, I pleaded, as I raced through the driving rain on the Mass Pike, over flooded rivers and streams in Columbia County, past houses and fields under water, to my wrecked little tomato patch, the radio thick with the news that the Cash for Clunkers program burned through a Billion dollars in only five days, that the recession was receding, that the streams were rising and that the Northeast had been declared an Agricultural Disaster Area.
Say it ain’t so, I pleaded… but it was.
( Note: the questions raised have now been addressed in the post. LL) I have a few questions and comments about your statement ” . . . able to live only on certain plants of the Solanaceous family – potato/tomato/eggplant, etc. It is now known however that P. infestans can also infect and be harbored on other plants such as nightshades, bittersweets, pansies, and certain melons.”
Nightshades are the common name for the Solanaceous family, so it is redundant to say that it also infects them. When you say bittersweets, do you mean bittersweet nightshade, a weed in the Solanaceous family, or the bittersweet vine? And could you tell me your information source for melons and pansies being infected by P. infestans? I had read that petunias could be infected & transmit to tomatoes, which makes sense as petunias are in the same Solanaceous family. But it seems strange to me that melons and pansies would be infected.
I don’t mean to be nit-picky, but when dealing with such a destructive pathogen, any bit of misinformation can cause a lot of trouble, even panic.
Hi Kathy,
What a clever and kind way for you to have encouraged me to go back and review the facts. You are right. I was wrong, and Leslie will fix this.
In reviewing some of the internet sources I discovered the following:
Indeed this outbreak this year can and has struck fear, perhaps even panic, into the hearts of many gardeners and agriculturists in the Northeast and elsewhere. According to a report published two days ago – http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/09228/991203-455.stm – the outbreak now stretches all along the eastern seaboard from Florida to Maine, and a quick Google also shows it in Canada and many Midwestern states, all confirmed by the respective State University Pathologists. The news accounts repeatedly use the terms “disaster” and “devastate” to describe the effect on the tomato harvest.
It is now, and may continue to be, a significant challenge in the coming years, and you are right to look for very specific information in your attempt to meet this challenge, some of which follows.
The specific answers to some of your questions, I think, can be found at the Cornell site listed above and relisted here.http://vegetablemdonline.ppath.cornell.edu/factsheets/Potato_LateBlt.htm
Cornell Pathologist, William E. Fry writes, “Phytophthora infestans affects several different plant species and has the potential to cause devastating disease almost everywhere potatoes are grown. It is also a serious pathogen on tomatoes in cool, wet climates. In central Mexico it is a parasite or pathogen of many different wild Solanum species. In Canada and the United States P. infestans has been reported to infect hairy nightshade (Solanum sarachioides), bittersweet (S. dulcamara) and Petunia (Petunia hybride) in addition to potatoes and tomatoes. In South America it has been reported as an important pathogen of pear melon (S. muticatum).”
Rereading this, in light of your comment, I was ashamed to realize that I confused Pansies with Petunia, so little do I know about these little flowers. My mistake. Thanks for calling my attention to this and clarifying the record. Boy, am I going to catch heck from Leslie! (update: I didn’t give him heck but I did correct the error. LL)
Whereas the pear melon (S. muticans), is a Solanaceous plant which has become a host of P. infestans, it is other species of Phytophthora (P. capcisi and paracitica) which affect true melons: According to plant scientists at Cornell, “Phytophthora blight is a disease that should be a concern to all cucurbit growers. It has been described as the ‘most destructive disease of cucurbits’ because ‘nothing causes greater loss’. Total crop loss has occurred in some fields …While all cucurbits are susceptible, squash, cucumber and pumpkin seem to be affected more commonly than cantaloupe. It has been increasing in importance in the U.S.” http://vegetablemdonline.ppath.cornell.edu/factsheets/Cucurbit_Phytoph2.htm
You also wondered how a pathogen specific to one plant might spread to another, especially one from another family. Part of the process seems to involve the ecological conditions that favor transmission of the pathogens. Consider the following:
The same weather conditions that favor the spread of P. infestans also favors the spread of capcisi and parasitica. For the latter two species, it appears that both mating types may currently be available, at least in some fields in the Northeast, therefore allowing for genetic shuffling of the genes and overwintering oospores, factors which in turn facilitate rapid adaptation, and evolution. In addition, according to the Cornell site, “The fungus that affects cucurbits [capcisi] can also cause blight in pepper, fruit rot in eggplant, and buckeye rot in tomato. Buckeye rot can also be caused by Phytophthora parasitica”.
Geneticists warn that when two or more pathogens inhabit the same cell at the same time quite large jumps in the presence, strength, and expression of the pathogens are possible. The jump is facilitated via a mechanism called ‘plasmid exchange’ and can leap not only from species to species, but also from genus to genus, family to family and even kingdom to kingdom. It is evolution on the move. If my memory is correct Jonathan Weiner describes the process well in the last chapter(s) of his Pulitzer Prize winning book, The Beak of the Finch. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beak_of_the_Finch By this process, a bacterium can develop resistance to an antibiotic via normal evolutionary pathways and then ‘confer’ that resistance to entirely unrelated organisms (bacteria, viruses, and parasites) that have never been exposed to the antibiotic.
A related process involving ‘jumping genes’ (transposons) can also shift genes around very quickly. About half the genes in corn (Zea maize) for example seem to have resulted from this process. Once transferred, these transposons can force their way through the entire population quickly. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transposon for an overview and examples.
All of this does get complicated. In my haste to put this article out, I omitted some of the some of this documentation and exposition, and did collapse some of the material. My statement about Pansies and Melons was in error. Yours is correct.
You are also right that “Nightshades are the common name for the Solanaceous family”, and this would be redundant if read without the modifier “certain” in my statement, the intent of which was to stress primarily that rapid adaptation appears to be underway allowing Phytophthora species to infect other plants within (and outside of) their respective ‘obligate’ families (and secondarily to remind us that effective tactics of control may also need to include rooting out these other hosts which also may be infected.)
Thanks for your interest in Leslie’s Blog and your thoughtful comment. I hope your Solanaceous plants have escaped this Blight this year, but if not, consider that even Martha Stewart, with her crisp management style, teams of dedicated workers, and buckets of money couldn’t escape it! http://www.themarthablog.com/2009/08/the-tomato-blight-in-my-garden.html
As I said before, Yikes!